National importance of survival of transportation systems during and after all natural disasters

NATIONAL IMPORTANCE OF SURVIVAL OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

A transportation system can be defined as the combination of elements and their interactions, which produce the demand for travel within a given area and the supply of transportation services to satisfy this demand.

A transportation system is a system for moving persons or goods consisting of three components

1. The vehicle
2. The guideway and
3. The operations plan
   

The different modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, which includes Rails or railways, road and off-road transport.  

• Disasters are extraordinary situations that require significant logistical deployment to transport equipment and humanitarian goods in order to help and provide relief to victims.
• An efficient response helps to reduce the social, economic and environmental impacts 
• Transportation is often considered a critical infrastructure since a disruption in one of its components can have a significant impact on the economic and social well-being of a region of a nation.
• An effective way to assess how critical infrastructure like transportation system would affect the economy is to consider the impacts its removal would have on the flows and activities it serves.
• Transportation systems have a direct impact on:
• Mobility
• Infrastructure and economic interdependency
• Centralization and concentration of distribution
• Urbanization

• If the disruption is at a wide scale, road networks are vulnerable to disruptions because of their mesh structure
  

• Regardless of type of disasters, it is essential to keep the transportation systems in a working status as transportation is required for:
• Site reconnaissance
• Search and rescue operations
• Resettlement and rehabilitation of affected people
• Providing camps, food and sanitation places for affected people
• Transportation systems include  transport by road, water and air
• Destructive natural disasters such as hurricanes or other extreme weather events challenge many industries, especially the public transit industry.
  
• After a disaster occurs, transportation networks act as key lifelines enabling access to the affected communities
  
• From an economic standpoint, the impacts of disasters are dependent on three factors; 
• the nature and level of incidence of disasters
• the level of exposure of populations and infrastructures, and
• the level of vulnerability of populations and infrastructures. 
• The impact of disasters on transportation systems 
• Logistics networks highlight the important role of road transport in ensuring that affected areas become resilient to natural disasters in the future.
• The resilience of a transport system is its capability to resume operations at a level similar to that before a disruption occurred.
• Resilience is highly influenced by the network structure, particularly its redundancy.
• Resilience is also related to the nature of the disaster 
• Transport infrastructure is at risk of direct damage from extreme climate events.
• Cox's proportional hazards regression model is used to determine the rate of recovery and cumulative probability that recovery occurs for transport infrastructure across an area.
• Data for post-disaster reconstruction projects over a period are used to analyse recovery rates for a geographic region, natural disaster type and post-disaster transport infrastructure reconstruction cost.
• Bootstrap resampling technique has been used to demonstrate that the model (Cox's proportional hazards regression model) is robust and reasonable.
• Some companies are reactive and agile during a disruption or disaster – using a transportation management system (TMS) to reroute freight in transit and schedule alternative modes for inventory on hand.
• Road transport is potentially affected by flooding, storms and rising sea levels due to climate change.
  

The continued survival of transportation systems is essential to the very existence of mankind as it plays a major role of transporting both human beings as well as equipment required for survival.

The natural disasters considered are:

• Cyclones
• Natural disasters like cyclones can have disastrous consequences on transportation systems since they:
• cover wide areas
• move slowly and
• are associated with high winds and rainfalls

• Earthquakes
• Tectonic activity is the source of major geophysical disasters like Earthquakes.
• They are difficult to predict and are focused on areas in the vicinity to boundaries of tectonic plates. 
• Earthquakes cause the most extensive damage to the transport infrastructure as it has significant impacts on supply chains
• Although areas of high earthquake occurrence are readily identified, the specific location and scale of an event remain a probability that is often difficult to conceptualize in the planning of transport infrastructure.
• Trucks deliver essential relief goods and much needed construction equipment and resources, while also removing debris from affected cities and towns. 
• The flexibility of trucks, with the facility to use secondary and alternative roads, has allowed relief operations to continue.
• Floods 
• During such events, regional transportation systems are usually shut down and road transportation can be severely impaired. 
• Due to flooding and power outages, it might take several days before the entire system is brought back to normal operating conditions.
• Natural disasters like cyclones will continue to occur with uncertainty in scale and frequency
  

Man-made disasters like 

• Sabotage
• Sabotage refers to a deliberate attempt to weakening an organisation (in this case a transportation system) through subversion, obstruction, disruption or destruction.
• There have been several cases in the past where lines of transportation (especially road networks) were compromised to held the government to ransom
• Sabotage operations also involve setting one or all components of the transportation system on fire
• There have been several acts of sabotage of road transportation networks in the past by throwing hand grenades on roads
  
• Terrorism
• Conflicts such as wars and civil unrest often result in the damaging of infrastructure with transportation commonly a voluntary or involuntary target. 
• Due to the importance of trade and the structure of road transportation networks, bottlenecks (strategic passages) are subject to the risk of partial or complete closure. 
• Terrorism has been a disruptive issue that came at the forefront over the last two decades. 
• The disruptions caused by terrorism can be considered a disaster because of their scale and scope. 
• The response towards terrorism often results in the closing of the road transport system. 
• Often, road transport lines are forced to pass through constrained areas, choke-points along the heavily used routes, which make the interception of vehicles feasible within a delimited area.

In-spite of  the disruption caused to transportation systems during and after disasters (natural and man-made), it is of utmost importance to keep the transportation system alive. Thus, the survival of transportation systems during and after all disasters is discussed below:

Disasters Risk Management, which could reduce disruptions is discussed below:

• Risk Assessment involves measuring the likelihood of an event and its potential impacts over a defined time frame and a specific area should provide a prioritization of risks.
• Preparedness should be considered in terms of potential responses involving
• warehousing and
• positioning of relief material, equipment along with 
• training the labour force in emergency situations.
• Mitigation involves the immediate reaction to the event including
• shutting down of transport systems
• the evacuation of populations and
• the mobilization of first response resources, namely distributing emergency relief (food, medical supplies). 
• The goal being control and attenuation of the disruptions caused by the disaster.
• Response operations commence after mitigation and involve bringing back transportation system capacity with existing infrastructure. 
• The goal is to maintain operational as many elements of the transport system as possible. 
• Recovery concerns all the steps necessary to recover the transport capacity that was lost during the disaster. 
• It involves repairs, restarting services that were discontinued as well as investments in new and improved infrastructures, modes, and terminals.
• The goal is to bring back the capacity and level of service to pre-disaster conditions. With the lessons learned from the disaster, more resilient infrastructure and network. 

The reconstruction time of transportation infrastructure tends to be slower than other infrastructure.

Road and rail infrastructure can take several months

Highway and rail services can run at a lower capacity and on alternative routes.

Recovery is contingent upon the availability of capital, equipment, and managerial expertise.

Recovery operations opens the door for public-private partnerships since the private sector has a vast array of resources, including transportation and warehousing assets, that can be brought in during a disaster. 

Achieving a level of resilience implies a combination of redundancy or flexibility. Redundancy involves a level of duplication of assets while Flexibility concerns the capacity to find alternatives such as new routes.

Disruptions, complete or partial, always result in much more transport demand than supply.  

The mobility of passengers or freight should shift towards modes that have a higher capacity and resiliency

Planning effective incident management program

 PLANNING EFFECTIVE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

The goal of an incident management system is not to create a response, but rather to create a more effective response for all responding agencies

 The difference between an incidence response and an effective incident management lies in the incident response which is carried out in every area covered by every form of emergency management.

However, effective incident management carries out a detailed degree of coordination, planning and conscious effort implied by effective incident management.

An effective approach to developing an incident management program involves the following steps:

• Identification of relevant stakeholders
• Kick-off meeting to introduce the concepts and benefits of incident management
• Public outreach
• The basic eight (8) step incident management program involves:
• Defining the problem
• Setting goals and objectives
• Developing alternatives
• Evaluating alternatives
• Selecting alternatives
• Implementing alternatives
• Reevaluating alternatives and
• Refining the system

Elements of a successful incident management program

• People
• Incident response teams (IRTs) deliver actual incident management services in the field.
• IRTs are interdisciplinary teams participating from each responding agency (Eg: Fire, Police, Emergency Management Services, Transport department, etc)
• The following agencies and service providers may be part of the IRTs
• Ambulance services
• Towing and recovery
• Toxic material control
• Emergency services, etc

Training

• Multi-agency training is fundamental in maintaining and improving incident management program quality. 
• The importance of proper training cannot be underestimated in light of the litigious nature of today's society.

Field guides

• Formal training programs provide the knowledge and skill base that Incident Response Team (IRT) members need to perform their jobs effectively. This is supplemented with written (or electronic) field guides.
• Resource guides, like other aspects of incident management programs, are tailored to the nature, scope and resources of each area’s program.
• Response guides are different from policy guides in the sense that policy guide focuses on administrative and theoretical aspects of incident management and are based on laws and statutes
• Response guides or field guides provide the team members with nuts and bolts of information needed, contact lists and the actions to be performed. They are often required to work in harsh and demanding conditions.
• Incident response guide covers:
• Introduction to incident management
• Incident response vehicle
• Equipment and materials
• Step-by-Step incident response features for ALL features
• Communications (OSCCR - On Scene Command and Communication Radio network) for use by dissimilar agencies at an incident scene

Following are the elements of a successful incident management program:

• Infrastructural and Operational Strategies
• Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
• provides a complementary means to maximise efficiency and safety of transportation infrastructure
• ITS covers a range of advanced computer and telecommunications technologies that allow monitoring, control and respond to transportation system in sophisticated ways
• ITS is particularly relevant to incident management. It provides the greatest benefit of many IT technologies.
  

Detection and verification

• Surveillance technologies help in traffic monitoring and data collection.
• Data collected includes:
• Vehicle volume
• Vehicle speeds
• Occupancy and
• Traffic density

• The various types of automated surveillance are:
• Inductive loop detectors
• Magnetometer detection
• Microwave radar detection
• Infrared detection
• Ultrasonic detection
• Video image processing
• Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
• Video probes
• Automatic vehicle identification
• Automatic vehicle location

• Incident detection algorithms
• Traffic surveillance methods are translated into incident detection data
• Several incident detection algorithms are used to allow computer systems in traffic operation centers to alert operators of the possibility of an incident in the road network
• Incident detection algorithms are divided into:
• Pattern recognition algorithms
• Statistical algorithms
• Time-series algorithms and
  
• Modeling algorithms

Best practices in incident management programs

 BEST PRACTICES IN INCIDENT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS

• Traffic incident management (TIM) is a planned and coordinated program to detect and remove incidents and restore traffic capacity as safely and quickly as possible. 
• Various tools and strategies have been developed and implemented in an effort to improve overall TIM efforts.
• TIM activities are typically categorized into five overlapping functional areas:
• Detection and verification.
• Traveler information.
• Response.
• Scene management and traffic control.
• Quick clearance and recovery.  

 Detection and verification

• Field verification by on-site responders and closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras 
• Enhanced roadway reference markers and automated positioning systems to support accurate identification of incident location by motorists or response personnel
• In rural areas, motorist aid call boxes and automated collision notification systems (ACNS) to speed detection

Equipment used in managing traffic accidents

 EQUIPMENT NEEDED IN MANAGING TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

Procuring equipment for incident clearance should be evaluated to improve incident management process. In case of a traffic accident, equipment is needed at most stages as described below

• Incident response includes dispatching appropriate personnel and equipment as soon as there is a reasonable certainty that an incident has occurred.
• Traffic incident management includes ensuring the availability of traffic control equipment and materials
• Procuring equipment for incident clearance should be evaluated to improve the incident management process
• The incident response guide contains the location and availability of equipment needed in managing traffic accidents
• CCTV is a non-intrusive video image processing equipment that is used to monitor near-by incidents with pan, tilt and zoom controls. A CCTV is extremely useful in verifying the location, nature and scope of an incident that has already been detected.
• Some of the specialised response equipments used in managing traffic accidents are:
• Heavy duty wreakers
• Inflatable air bag systems to upright overturned trucks, etc

• Some of the special use equipment used to help reduce clearance and response times are:
• Identification arm bands and vests
• Incident response and hazardous materials manuals
• Total station surveying equipment

Incident traffic management

INCIDENT TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

Traffic Incident Management is a planned and coordinated program process to detect, respond to, and remove traffic incidents and restore traffic capacity as safely and quickly as possible.

• Traffic Incident Management requires a multidisciplinary approach.  
• Traffic incidents require a high level of cooperation and coordination among all agencies involved.
• Effective Incident Traffic Management activities depend on flexible communications and information systems. 
• On the basis of experiences from the military domain, it is possible to develop strategic concepts that ensure the improvement of information sharing and collective action. 
• Such concepts can also be applied to enhanced Traffic Incident Management information systems.
• Incident management is the total package of measures geared to optimise traffic safety during handling incidents like accidents, stopped vehicles, spilled vehicles, etc. to rapid and efficient of incidents to minimal traffic delays.
• Incident Traffic Management is used to arrive at Incident Management that is both preventive and curative.
• Curative Incident Management consists of procedures and technical improvement to speed up incident detection, verification and response.
• Preventive Incident Management is based on the assumption that dangerous (accident prone) situations can be predicted.
• Roadway geometry characteristics along with traffic and weather data are used to determine incident probability on a road segment.
• Using real-time data, short term predictions can be provided.
• Combination of Incident Management (IM) and Traffic Management (TM) can help develop a powerful strategy that is even more effective
  

Incident management process in road accidents

INCIDENT MANAGEMENT PROCESS IN ROAD ACCIDENTS

An incident management process is a set of procedures and actions taken to respond to and resolve critical incidents.

It primarily concerns:

• how incidents are detected and communicated
• who is responsible
• what tools are used, and
• what steps are taken to resolve the incident.

Traffic incident management standards are there to protect all road users. 

Incident management is defined as the systematic, planned, and coordinated use of human, institutional, mechanical, and technical resources to reduce the duration and impact of incidents, and improve the safety of motorists, crash victims, and incident responders. 

Agencies typically responding to highway incidents include:

• Police
• Fire
• Towing and recovery
• Emergency medical service (EMS)
• Hazardous material
• Transportation agencies
• Media 

An “incident” is defined as any non-recurring event that causes a reduction of roadway capacity or an abnormal increase in demand.  

Events include:

• traffic crashes
• disabled vehicles
• spilled cargo
• highway maintenance
• reconstruction projects and
• special non-emergency events

Incident management process can be characterized as a set of activities that fall into the following seven categories. 

    1.    Detection of incident by:

• Mobile telephone calls from motorists
• Closed circuit TV cameras viewed by operators
• Automatic vehicle identification (AVI) combined with detection software
• Electronic traffic measuring devices (e.g., video imaging, loop or radar detectors) and algorithms that detect traffic abnormalities
• Motorist aid telephones or call boxes
• Police patrols
• Aerial surveillance
• Department of transportation or public works crews reporting via two-way radio
• Traffic reporting services
• Fleet vehicles (transit and trucking)
• Roaming service patrols 

2.     Verification

• Incident verification involves confirming the occurrence of an incident, determining its exact location, and obtaining as many relevant details about the incident as possible. Verification includes gathering enough information to dispatch the proper initial response. Incident verification is usually completed with the arrival of the first responders on the scene. Methods of verification include:
• Closed circuit TV cameras viewed by operators
• Dispatch field units (e.g., police or service patrols) to the incident site
• Communications with aircraft operated by the police, the media, or an information service provider
• Combining information from multiple cellular phone calls

3.    Motorist Information

• Motorist information involves activating various means of disseminating incident-related information to affected motorists.
• Media used to disseminate motorist information include the following
• Commercial radio broadcasts
•  Highway advisory radio (HAR)
• Variable message signs (VMS)
• Telephone information systems
• In-vehicle or personal data assistant information or route guidance systems
• Commercial and public television traffic reports
• Internet/on-line services

A variety of dissemination mechanisms provided by information service providers Motorist information needs to be disseminated as soon as possible, and beyond the time it takes clear an incident. It should be disseminated until traffic flow is returned to normal conditions. 

 4.    Response

• Incident response includes 
• dispatching the appropriate personnel and equipment, and
•  activating the appropriate communication links and motorist information media as possible.
• This is made possible through training and planning
• Effective response mainly involves preparedness by a number of agencies so that response to individual incidents is coordinated, efficient, and effective.

5.    Site Management

• Site management is the process of effectively coordinating and managing on-scene resources. Ensuring the safety of response personnel, incident victims, and other motorists is the foremost objective of incident site management. It involves the following activities
• Accurately assessing incidents
• Properly establishing priorities
• Notifying and coordinating with the appropriate agencies and organizations
• Using effective liaisons with other responders
• Maintaining clear communications 
• Effective incident site management can be facilitated by an incident command system (ICS) which involves
• Common terminology  
• Modular organization
• Integrated communications
• Agreed upon command structure
• Consolidated action plans
• Manageable span of control
• Designation of incident facilities and 
• Comprehensive resource management  

 6.    Traffic management

• Traffic management involves the application of traffic control measures in areas affected by an incident. It includes:
• Establishing point traffic control on-scene,
• Managing the roadway space by:
• opening and closing lanes
• blocking only the portion of the incident scene that is needed for safety 
• staging and parking emergency vehicles and equipment to minimize impact on traffic flow

• Deploying appropriate personnel to assist in traffic management (e.g., state police, local police, and service patrols)
• Actively managing traffic control devices (including ramp meters, lane control signs, and traffic signals) in affected areas, and
• Designating, developing, and operating alternate routes.

Each function of effective incident management, traffic control in the incident management context is rooted in planning.

7.    Clearance

• Incident clearance is the process of removing wreckage, debris, or any other element that disrupts the normal flow of traffic, or forces lane closures, and restoring the roadway capacity to its pre-incident condition.

Impacts of Road Accidents

 IMPACTS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

"More people die of road accidents than by most diseases, so much so the Indian highways are among the top killers of the country." - Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer

Road safety is a shared responsibility 

The impacts of traffic accidents are listed below:

• Traffic accidents have a devastating human toll and the economic impact of road crashes is enormous
• The impact of road accidents on individual, family and society in terms of morbidity, disability, economic and social fall-out, is immense and remains unrecognized
• The economic impact of injuries is huge and is estimated to cost approximately 5% of the GDP, with injuries due to road crashes alone accounting for 3 % of the GDP 
•  The mental and emotional injuries after a car accident include
•  mental anguish
• emotional distres
• fear
• anger
• humiliation
• anxiety
• shock
• embarrassment
• random episodes of crying
• loss of appetite
• weight fluctuations
• lack of energy
• sexual dysfunction
• mood swings and
• sleep disturbances.
•  93% of the world's fatalities on the roads occur in low- and middle-income countries, who have approximately 60% of the world's vehicles.
• Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death for children and young adults aged 5-29 years.