Tests on driver and vehicles

TESTS ON DRIVER

A driving test is administered to test a person's ability to drive.a motor vehicle. It is a requirement to obtain a driver's license. It generally consists of two parts. A theory test to check the candidate's knowledge regarding the latest traffic rules and a road test to test a persons driving ability under normal operating conditions. The driving tests are normally standardised tests.The written test  typically consists of questions related to road signs and traffic laws of the country. The requirements of the driving test generally comprises of:

• driving back and forth through a set of traffic cones
• reversing around a corner or into a parking space, with or without a trailer or semi-trailer, or with an extra one for multi-rig road trains
• Turning and leaving controlled junctions with trailer and/or with an extra one for multi-rig road trains
• emergency stops or evasive maneuvers
• maintaining a motorcycle stable at low speed
• Parallel Parking (with a maximum of 2 separate forward movements)
• Reverse Angled parking (cars, trucks and road trains)
• Three-point turns (in 3 movements)
• Uphill starts, downhill curbside parking with gear shifts
• Gear shifts moving off green lights (manual cars and trucks only)
• Lane changes
• Entering and leaving intersections (from give ways, stop signs, roundabouts)/

Other tests may be required, such as an eyesight test or a reaction test. These may be part of the theory test or the practical test or may be separate tests. 

TESTS ON VEHICLES

The following is the list of tests to be carried-out on vehicles with respect to safety of driver / passengers / occupants

• Engine oil
• Before starting the engine, the oil level should be checked daily. 
• The oil being used should be checked for the right viscosity in case of  operating the vehicle in extreme heat or cold.
• Air pressure in tires
• Visually confirmation of tires verifies if the tires are properly inflated.
• In addition, tires should be checked for signs of damage or unusual wear 
• A tire gauge should be used to confirm that all tires are inflated to manufacturer recommendations.
• Spare tire
• Tire gauge should be used to confirm that the spare tire is inflated to recommended pressure.
• The spare tire should be constantly rotated in order to achieve even tire wear
  
• Tread depth in tires
• A tread depth gauge should be used to check tread depth of all tires.
• The Motor Vehicle Act requires that tires be replaced when tread depth wears to 1.6 mm.
• Tires should be replaced tires when tread depth is 3.2 mm.
  
• Head lights
• Constant checks should be performed to ensure hi-beams, low-beams and fog lights work.
  
• Tail lights
•  Constant checks should be performed to ensure that tail lights work
  
• Turn signals
•  Visual test or use of lumino scope to ensure proper functioning of turn signals
  
• Emergency signals
• Functioning of emergency signals is validated by visual inspection. 
• Before venturing out, the functioning of emergency signals should be verified
  
• Windshield
• The windshield should be carefully inspected for any cracks, splinters and clear vision before venturing on any journey
  
• Wipers
• The fitment and functioning of the wipers can be verified visually
• The condition of wipers (including level and effectiveness of cleaning fluid) is essential especially in case of dusty / misty / wet conditions
  
• Heater / Defroster
• While testing the windshield defrosting and defogging system, the test procedure involves
• Warm-up procedure for cold weather starting.
• Engine speed shall not exceed 1,500 rpm in neutral gear
• The windshield wipers may be used during the test if they are operated without manual assist.
• The defroster blower may be turned on at any time.
• Horn
• Horn is an essential safety feature fitment on all the vehicles.
• The Horns shall be complying with the requirements of IS:1884 –1993.
• The measurement of the sound pressure levels shall be made using a sound
  level meter in accordance with IS : 9779 – 1981.
• The sound pressure level of the background noise and wind noise must be
  at least 10 dB(A) below the sound level to be measured.
• Sound levels should be between 83 dB(A) to 112 dB (A) for horns fitted on 2 wheelers or 3
  wheelers of a power less than or equal to 7 kW.
• Sound levels should be between 93 dB (A) to 112 dB (A) for the horn fitted on all other
  motor vehicles including tractor, 2 wheelers and 3 wheelers of a power greater than 7 kW.
  
• Seat-belts
• Five essential safety checks for seat belts are listed below
• Webbing - check for nicks, cuts, webs and holes
  
• Buckle - check for damage and loose connection to the vehicle
  
• Retraction - check by pulling the seat belt with a jerk thereby locking it in position
  
• All ages adjuster -Check the adjuster to position it above occupant's shoulder height
  
• Twisting  - Twisted seat belts cause greater harm to the occupant as the seat belt takes the entire impact on the twisted area instead of distributing it over the entire seat belt.
  
• Rear-view mirrors
• Before turning right or left or moving out to pass or pulling up, always glance back or look through rear view mirror behind and make sure it is safe 
• Check the vehicle and its fixtures every day and when driving, always adjust the rear view and side mirrors
• Objects in the rear view mirror on both sides and behind the vehicle to see that there is nothing around to interfere with movement of the vehicle
• Rear-view mirrors and the field of vision provided by them is a safety
  requirement.
• “Rear-View Mirror” means a device other than a complex optical system, whose aim is to give a clear view towards the rear of the vehicle. It may be interior or exterior
  
• All rear-view mirrors shall be examined visually for harmful defects
• The contours of the reflecting surface shall be of simple geometric form and its dimensions such that it provides, the required field of vision
• The contours of the reflecting surface shall be of simple geometric form and its dimensions such that the mirror provides the required field of vision.
• The test provided shall not be required in the case of any exterior rear-view mirror
• Impact test consists of a pendulum capable of swinging about two horizontal axes at right angles to each other, one of which is perpendicular to the plane containing the “release” trajectory of the pendulum. The end of the pendulum comprises a hammer formed by a rigid sphere with a diameter of 165 ± 1 mm and having a 5 mm thick rubber covering of hardness score A 50.
• The center of percussion of the pendulum coincides with the center of
  the sphere which forms the hammer.
• The reduced mass of the pendulum to its center of percussion is m0 = 6.8 ± 0.05 kg
• The test consists in allowing the hammer to fall from a height corresponding to a pendulum angle of 60° from the vertical so that the hammer strikes the rear-view mirror at the moment when the pendulum reaches the vertical position.
  
• In-cab ergonomics
• Effective cab ergonomics play an important role in driver productivity, safety and health
• Ergonomics plays a critical role to help enable drivers to perform efficiently.
• Sleeper cabs feature seats, steering wheels and pedals that can adjust to comfortably fit any body type.
• Cab ergonomics play a vital role in reducing driver distraction and fatigue.
• Components of In-cab ergonomics include:
• larger windshields and windows for improved visibility
• adjustable tilt 
• telescoping steering wheels, 
• adjustable seat belts, and 
• movable cup holders.
  
• In-cab ergonomics also can help reduce worker injury due to prolonged sitting and repetitive motion
• Ergonomic design can help reduce these exposures. By making cabs more ergonomically friendly and reducing the likelihood of drivers becoming symptomatic from injuries
• Aspects such as steps for egress and entry to the cab signify the importance of a focus on a much-needed safety feature
• Mirror placement can reduce neck strain and leather steering wheel allows a more comfortable grip
• Improved door seals, help provide the driver with a quiet environment
• Ergonomics is shaping a new paradigm of habitability for drivers
• Parking brake
• A parking brake is a special brake used to prevent a motor vehicle from rolling after it has stopped or been parked. 
• It refers to any brake meant to stop a vehicle in an emergency.
• Conducting the test on a monthly basis gives peace of mind, knowing that the vehicle is road-worthy.
• The parking brake can be checked by driving it up a small hill with enough slope for the vehicle to roll freely once the foot is taken off the brake
• The vehicle should start rolling the down the hill
• With the vehicle in motion, the parking brake should be engaged to stop the vehicle abruptly.
• Repeat the same steps in the opposite direction. The parking brake should work in the same way.
• If the parking brake does not stop the vehicle immediately, an in-depth look in the vehicle's brake system is required
  
• Brakes
• To check the efficacy of brakes, the stopping distance at a speed of  30kmph should be less than 13 meters
• Similarly the parking brake should be checked as discussed above
• Leakage of brake oil should be checked frequently
• The type of check for brakes is called "BRAKE TEST"
  
• Instrument panel / Gauges / Warnings
• Instrument panel varies on different vehicles based on manufacturer's specification. However, most instrument panels contain the following
• Speedometer - gives the speed of the vehicle
  
• Odometer - displays distance travelled by the vehicle
  
• Tachometer - displays rotations made by engine at that instant
  
• Fuel gauge - displays the amount of fuel remaining in fuel tank
  
• Gear display - displays the gear currently engaged in vehicle
  
• Turn signal indicators - indicates direction of turn of vehicle (simultaneous blinking in both directions indicates hazard lights)
  
• Active system lights - alerts the driver to parts of the vehicle that are activated
• The instrument panel is a one source stop for the driver regarding the health of a vehicle. 
• Its functionality should be verified by driver every time the vehicle is used. Any malfunction is indicated by loud noise and flashing lights
• Temperature Warning Light indicates that the car's engine is overheated and needs coolant
• Oil Pressure Warning Light indicates that oil level is too low
• Check engine warning light that there is a serious problem with the engine that requiring immediate attention
• Tire pressure warning light indicates that one or more vehicle's tires have low pressure.
• Brake System Warning Light indicates that there is a problem with the brake system
• ABS Warning Light indicates that the vehicle's anti-lock brake system (ABS) has been deactivated due to an issue with the ABS
• Electronic Stability Control Light indicates that the vehicle's traction control is activated to prevent skidding
• Transmission Temperature Warning Light indicates that the transmission's current temperature is higher than normal.
• Battery Warning Light indicates that your vehicle's charging system is not working correctly
• Airbag Warning Light indicates that the vehicle's airbag system is not working properly
• Door Ajar Warning Light indicates that there is a door or the trunk door is open
• Fog Lamp indicates that the vehicle's front lamp is turned on
  
• Body damage
• A vehicle damage report summarizes the overall findings from a vehicle damage assessment. 
• Damage reports are used by owners to support insurance claims
•  A vehicle damage report summarizes
• Details of accident and
• Extent of damage is primarily due to collision, weather-impact, and unintended scratches/ dents
• A good vehicle damage report strengthened by facts, photo evidence, and witness statements
• Battery
• Vehicle battery can be checked using a standard multi-meter and should be checked every time a vehicle is driven
  
• Batteries in vehicles are of two types
• Lead-Acid battery (Old fashioned, uses Strong Acid - corrosive/leakage problems) 
• Maintenance free batteries (Gel based / leak proof / more expensive)
• Lithium-ion batteries (Extremely expensive / very user friendly)
  
• Vehicle documents
• The list of documents to be carried by all drivers is as follows
• Registration certificate
• Pollution Under Check (PUC) certificate
• Driving license
• Insurance policy
• Any other required permits like
• Certificate of fitness (of vehicle)
  
• License plate
• vehicle’s license plate is commonly known as ‘a number plate’.
• It is a metal plate which is attached to a vehicle and has the official registration number of a vehicle embossed on it.
• The official license plate number in India consists of 4 different parts, each of which has a specific purpose
• Number plates help anyone to identify a vehicle
• The first part indicates the state or Union territory, this is denoted by two letters.
• The next two digits refer to a district’s sequential number.
• The third part of the license plate is a unique number which helps to identify the vehicle 
• The fourth and final part is an oval logo which reads, “IND”, the acronym for India
  
• Transmission
• The main function of the transmission is to:
• transmit power from the engine to the rear wheels of the vehicle
• make reduced speed available, to rear wheels of the vehicle
• alter the ratio of wheel speed and engine speed in order to suit the field conditions.
• The transmission system consists of clutch, transmission gears, differential, final drive, rear axle and rear wheels
• Combination of all these components are responsible for transmission of power from crankshaft to the rear wheels.
• An automatic transmission system should be checked for:
• Delayed engagement
• Harsh shifting and
• Slippage

• A Manual transmission should be checked for:
• clutch (slip on acceleration, production of burning smell and engage too quickly)
• A continuous variable transmission should be checked for 
• Jerky engagement
• Rattling
• Slipping and
• loud whining noise while cruising
  

• Steering
• The steering system allows the driver to guide the vehicle.
• The steering wheel is connected, via the steering column and a series of pivoted joints, to the suspension system.
• The steering system also requires precise adjustment, as any looseness in the joints can make the steering dangerous
• The steering systems should be inspected:
• at 80,000 km
• as part of annual service
• if tires are replaced or brakes are serviced
• whenever  oil and filters are changed

• Symptoms of faulty steering and/or suspension include
• Nose dives, squats or rolls
• Bottom out
• Bouncing over bumps
• Bumpy ride
• Bump steer
• Over steer / under steer
• Hard steering
• Loose steering
• Car pulls to one side when driving
• Steering wheel jerks
• Steering wheel vibrates
• Steering wheel wobbles
• Noises while turning a corner
• Noises from the power steering unit
• One low corner
• The steering and suspension systems should be checked annually or bi-anually
  

• Engine belts and hoses
• The belts in a vehicle's engine drive components as the air conditioning compressor, power steering pump, alternator and water pump.
• Belts wear and tear over time, and a belt's failure could mean serious damage to the engine or its systems.
• Listen for squealing sounds from the engine when driving. These sounds likely mean one or more belts are worn, loose or damaged.  
• Check belts for signs of wear. This can be done by visually inspect the belts. This is done by pinching, squeezing and twisting them and looking for cracks, fraying, splits or brittle places
• On a serpentine belt visual inspection gives an idea about missing grooves or places where the belt's layers have separated.
• Belts should be checked for places where the rubber is slick or glazed in appearance. Slick spots can cause a belt to slip and may be precursors to overheating and cracking. 
• Pulleys should be inspected for a buildup of rubber deposits, as well as worn spots that could catch the belt and cause it to break. 
• The belts' alignment on the pulleys should be inspected if they line up straight on the pulleys. The belts should  regularly  checked for tension

•  Engine noise
• The following  tests are conducted  to address the problem of engine noise using a engine analyser or dynamo-meter
• Noise level 85 dB
• Vibration
• Leakage
• Missing washers
  
• Performance of engine
  

• Road side emergency / First aid kit
• The  vehicle  must be equipped with a first  aid kit to deal  with (provide first aid) in case of any road side emergency
  
• Windshield washer
• Windshield washing fluid should  be available in order to clean the windshield of any dirt that might accumulate on the windshield during the journey due to dust, mist, fog or rainfall
  
• Coolant level
• The driver should  ensure that sufficient coolant is available inn the coolant tankk in  the engine
• Moreover, the amount of  coolant available should be correctly indicated on the instrument panel
  
• Brake fluid level
• Brake fluid is a type of hydraulic fluid used in hydraulic brake and hydraulic clutch applications in vehicles. It is used to transfer force into pressure, and to amplify braking force. 
• Vaporization is a problem because vapor is highly compressible relative to liquid, and therefore negates the hydraulic transfer of braking force which will result in the brakes failing to stop the vehicle.
• For reliable and consistent brake system operation, brake fluid must maintain a constant viscosity under a wide range of temperatures, including extreme hot and cold
• Brake fluid with the wrong viscosity can have fatal consequences for the function of modern brake systems.
• Brake fluid should be tested for water and copper content. Electronic testers and test strips are commercially available to measure both moisture and copper content.  
• Brake fluid is crucial to the safe operation of a vehicle
• Brake fluid a part of regular maintenance routine of a vehicle and should be replaced when necessary
  
• Power steering fluid level
• Power steering makes steering and parking easy
  
•  The amount of power steering fluid is checked by mechanic during tune-up time
• The amount of power steering fluid shoulld be checked when the engine is cold.
• The reservoir that holds your power steering fluid can be found under the hood. It is usually located at the passenger's side of the vehicle.
• It is present in a heavy-duty plastic reservoir, which easily allows checking the fluid level without opening the container
• If the fluid is less, the container should be filled after ensuring that there is no leak
  
• Leak check
•  Small pools or leaks under the vehicle may indicate a number of problem
• Blackish, greasy leaks under the engine area are typically oil
• The leak might also be around the oil drain plug or crankcase and oil pan
• Thick, dark, oily leaks may mean a gear oil leak from a manual transmission, differential, an axle, or the steering gears and should be checked right away.
• Slippery, watery leaks that are green, red, blue, or yellow and coming from under the engine or radiator are likely to be coolant which require the radiator, pressure cap, engine, and hoses to be checked for leaks.
• Oily leaks that are a reddish color or clear and located toward the front could be power steering fluid.
• Light-colored or clear leaks could be brake fluid. Leaky brakes need immediate professional repair.
• Battery acid leaks typically have an odor like rotten eggs. Avoid contact with battery acid and have the battery replaced.
• Fuel leaks are usually recognizable by the gasoline smell. In this case, inspect around the fuel pump and the fuel injectors. If the leak seems to be under the center of the vehicle, it may be the fuel lines, or if it is closer to back, it could be the fluid tank

Traffic lights

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE - TRAFFIC LIGHTS

• Traffic management is a key branch within logistics. 
• It concerns the planning, control and purchasing of transport services needed to physically move vehicles and freight.  
• Traffic management refers to the organisation, arrangement, guidance and control of both stationary and moving traffic, including pedestrians, bicyclists and all types of vehicles.
• The aim of traffic management is to provide for the safe, orderly and efficient movement of persons and goods, and to protect and, where possible, enhance the quality of the local environment on and adjacent to traffic facilities.
• Traffic lights form an important aspect of traffic management and are essential for effective flow of  vehicles on a road network

Safety Cameras

USE OF SAFETY CAMERAS FOR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

A CCTV system is a closed video system where the signal is transmitted to a limited set of monitors, restricting the view to a certain set of people with specific purposes. Closed circuit television (CCTV) refers to the use of video cameras to transmit signals to a specific place with a set of monitors. Traffic control is becoming a critical application for CCTV. A typical CCTV system is composed of a camera system, reviewing displays and a central controller.

• CCTV provides a way to monitor multiple cameras internally and analyse generated images to extract useful information about traffic parameters, such as 
• speed
• traffic composition
• vehicle shapes
• vehicle types
• vehicle identification numbers and 
• occurrences of traffic violations or road accidents. 
• This offers a great help for transportation authorities, allowing them to make decisions accordingly and distribute traffic information to drivers, resulting in 
• improved traffic flow
• prompt accident detection
• shorter journey time
• less fuel consumption
• reduced emissions and 
• more satisfied travelers
• In the context of vehicles traffic management, there are two different perspectives to be considered
• the driver’s perspective and 
• the traffic authority’s perspective.
• `By studying reoccurring traffic patterns and trends, it is possible to learn how they are formed and why.
• Image-based CCTV systems have the ability to recognise unusual and abnormal events on roads by analysing digital images and extracting traffic parameters such as speed and traffic composition. Special software tools are usually used to help in recognising vehicle shapes, vehicle types, vehicle identification numbers and occurrence of traffic violations or road accidents.
• Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) system as an example of such tools
• After processing captured data and detecting an incident, two different approaches are available in the literature to implement the system reaction:
• Manual reaction and
• Automatic reaction
• CCTV leads to better traffic control.
• However, CCTV systems are extremely costly to install and operate and are offensive to privacy
• CCTV systems are increasingly used for road monitoring and traffic control systems. 
•  The computer analysis process of CCTV data is important to reduce errors and cost in terms of time and money.

Speed and load limit

Speed and load limit

Speed limit is defined as the maximum speed at which a vehicle is legally permitted to travel, as within a specific area, on a certain road, or under given conditions. Roads of different categories and under different situtions are designed for designated design speeds at which vehicles can travel with convenience and safety. 

However, at certain locations, such as approaches to manned and unmanned level crossings, sharp curves, congested/accident-prone locations, residential streets, etc., control of speed may become necessary to promote orderly traffic movement and improved safety.

Speed management can be defined as a set of measures to limit the negative effects of excessive and inappropriate speeds. Not only does this mean measures to restrict speed, but it also includes elements of road design, separation of different types of road users, road markings etc. based on the volume and type of traffic on that particular road. One of the most important aspects of speed management is education of road users.
The advantages and disadvantages of higher speeds, and why speeds should be low in urban areas

Advantages
• Allows reduction of journey time
• Enhances mobility
• Caters to driver's adrenalin rush & entertainment (questionable advantage)

Disadvantages
• Increases the distance travelled before a driver's reaction time + stopping distance can stop a vehicle
• Increases fuel consumption
• Increases greenhouse gas emissions
• Lesser time for both driver and other road users to recognize

Hazards
• Reduced ability of other road users to judge vehicle speed and time before collision
• Lesser opportunity for other road users to avoid a collision
• Greater likelihood that a driver will lose vehicle control
• Adversely impacts quality of life of vulnerable road users

LOAD LIMIT

Load limit sign on the road indicates the load of the vehicle, which should ply on the road. Overloading has been recognized to be both a safety concern as well as a cost concern. Overloaded vehicles, especially freight vehicles, destroy roads and negatively impact economic growth. The damage caused grows exponentially as the load increases. Damage to roads as a result of overloading leads to higher
maintenance and repair costs and shortens the life of a road which in turn places an additional burden on the government as well as law-abiding road users who ultimately carry the costs of inconsiderate
overloading. 

If the problem of overloading is not controlled, this cost has to be carried by the road user, which will require significant increases in road user charges such as the fuel tax, vehicles license fees, and overloading fees. Overloading is a safety hazard that leads to unnecessary loss of life, and also the rapid
deterioration of our roads, resulting in increased maintenance and transportation costs.
Overloaded vehicles threaten road safety and are contribute to many of the fatal accidents on roads. The overloaded vehicle will not only put the driver at risk but also passengers and other road users.
The following are the risks of overloading vehicles:

• The vehicle will be less stable, difficult to steer and take longer to stop. 
• Vehicles react differently when the maximum weights which they are designed to carry are exceeded.
• Overloaded vehicles can cause the tyres to overheat and wear rapidly which increases the chance of premature, dangerous and expensive failure or blow-outs.
• The driver’s control and operating space in the overloaded vehicle are diminished, escalating the chances of an accident.
• The overloaded vehicle cannot accelerate as normal – making it difficult to overtake
• At night, the headlights of an overloaded vehicle will tilt up, blinding oncoming drivers to possible debris or obstructions on the roadway
• Brakes have to work harder due to ‘the riding of brakes’ and because the vehicle is heavier due to overloading. 
• Brakes overheat and lose their effectiveness to stop the car.
• Due to overloading of passenger vehicles, seat belts are often not used as the aim is to pack-in as many persons as possible into the vehicle
• The whole suspension system comes under stress and, over time, the weakest point can give way.
• By overloading your vehicle you will incur higher maintenance costs to the vehicle – tyres, brakes, shock absorbers and higher fuel consumptionInsurance cover on overloaded vehicles may be void as overloading is illegal
  

The following measures are suggested to counter overloading

• A strategy map that will assist planners in deciding on appropriate locations for additional weighbridges.
• A database containing information on weighbridge operations and monitoring, as well as monthly reports that will be accessible via a website.
• This database will also contain information on habitual offenders.
• Portable scales are in the process of being evaluated, determining their accuracy and acceptability for prosecution purposes. 
• Legislation to extend the responsibility of overloading to the consigner and the consignee is in the process of being drafted.
• Vehicle testing stations are equipped with state-of-the-art testing equipment such as break rollers to test the quality of a vehicle’s breaks, a scuff gauge to measure the wheel alignment and many others.  
• This is done to ensure that when a vehicle is certified as being roadworthy it will definitely meet the prescribed standards.
• The National Roads Agency can enter into performance-based agreements with the private sector for the operation and administration of the weighbridges, and service agreements with the Local Traffic Authorities in order to ensure a dedicated attack on overloading.
• The strategy includes the monitoring and weighing of vehicles attempting to bypass the weighbridges by using alternative routes.

Integrated safety improvement and Traffic calming schemes

INTEGRATED SAFETY IMPROVEMENT

 The objectives of traffic management schemes is the development of a systematic process along with the various techniques that may be used for traffic management are described. The application of traffic management techniques to rural and urban roads is discussed. This includes treating routes or networks as a whole rather than simply focussing on isolated problem spots. 

Past and likely future trends in road travel along with various techniques for travel demand management are addressed.
Traffic management should be logically applied and consistently enforced, or it will not be effective. Enforcement must be considered an integral part of traffic management.

Integrated safety improvement

Integrated safety improvement is an integral part of reducing traffic fatalities. Traffic accidents contribute significantly to the annual social cost of a country's GDP. A direct consequence of economic
development is rapid motorization. The traffic police play a very important role in reducing traffic fatalities by road policing, traffic management and traffic enforcement, accident investigation, accident reporting and analysis, driver licensing, vehicle registration and traffic education. The five pillars on which road safety, traffic enforcement policies and actions are built are:

• Road safety management
• Safer roads
• Safer vehicles
• Safer road users and
• Post crash care
  

A few efforts to impart a positive influence on road safety are listed below:

• Establishment of a lead road safety agency at national & state levels that is equipped with the power, expertise and capacity to carry out the necessary activities independently.
• Notify legislations with regard to helmets, seat belts, drinking and driving, speeding, day time running lights and use of cell phones on an urgent basis in all Indian states.
• Establish a dedicated and ring–fenced road safety fund at national and state levels to cover all road safety initiatives.
• Mandate road safety audits for all new and existing roads from the designing stage itself.
• Create a Motor Vehicle Accident Fund to provide compulsory insurance for all road users
• Standardize, regulate, and enforce vehicle safety requirements.
• Build capacities across various sectors—police, health, and transport-- at central and state levels
• Establish Centres of excellence in road safety that can work towards road safety by undertaking capacity building, training, research and monitoring.
• Adopt the principle of safe systems approach for design of all new roads in such a way that road design should be forgiving.
• Strengthen road safety information systems to obtain reliable, robust and good quality data to guide all road safety activities. 
• For this purpose, data through the newly introduced road accident data collection formats should be strengthened at district and state levels with technical inputs.
  

Traffic calming schemes

• Traffic calming is a way of containing vehicle speeds by self-enforcing engineering measures and improving driver behaviour.
• Traffic calming has proved to be effective in restricting vehicle speed and in reducing the number and severity of road accidents, particularly in residential areas.
• Traffic calming uses physical design and other measures to improve safety for motorists, pedestrians and cyclists.
• It has become a tool to combat speeding and other unsafe behaviours of drivers in the neighbourhoods.
• The aim of implementing traffic calming measures is to encourage safer, more responsible driving and potentially reduce traffic flow
• Urban planners and traffic engineers have many strategies for traffic calming such as
• narrowed roads and
• speed humps
• The three "E's"that traffic engineers refer to  when discussing traffic calming are:
• Engineering
• (community) Education, and 
• (police) Enforcement
• Residents of a community often contribute to the perceived speeding problem within their neighborhoods.
• Hence, instructions on traffic calming; stress that the most effective traffic calming plans entail all three components and engineering measures alone will not produce satisfactory results.
• Engineering measures involve physically altering the road layout or appearance to actively or passively retard traffic any of the following techniques:
• increasing the cognitive load of driving 
• increasing the chance than an obstruction in the road will slow or momentarily stop motorists
• increasing the chance of passenger discomfort or even
• physical damage to a vehicle if speed limits are not observed (such as speed humps).
• especially designated areas where cyclists and pedestrians have legal priority over cars
• several visual changes to roads are made to encourage more attentive driving, reduced speed, reduced crashes, and a greater tendency to yield to pedestrians. 
• Visual traffic calming includes lane narrowings, road diets, use of trees next to streets, on-street parking and buildings placed in urban fashion close to streets.
• Physical devices include speed humps, speed cushions and speed tables, sized for the desired speed. Such measures normally slow cars to between 16 and 40 km/h.
• Traffic calming devices are made of asphalt or concrete. However, traffic calming products made of rubber are emerging as an effective alternative with several advantages.
• Traffic calming can include the following engineering measures:
• Narrowing: Narrowing traffic lanes makes slower speeds seem more natural to drivers and are less intrusive than other treatments that limit speed or restrict route choice. Narrowing measures include:
• Lane narrowings can be created by extending sidewalks, adding bollards or planters, or adding a bike lane or on-street parking.
• Kerb extensions (also called bulbouts) narrow the width of the roadway at pedestrian crossings
• Chokers are kerb extensions that narrow roadways to a single lane at certain points
• Road diets remove a lane from the street. For example, allowing parking on one or both sides of a street to reduce the number of driving lanes.
• Pedestrian refuges or small islands in the middle of the street can help reduce lane widths.
• Converting one-way streets into two-way streets forces opposing traffic into close proximity, which requires more careful driving.
• Construction of polymer cement overlay to change asphalt to brick texture and colour to indicate a high-traffic pedestrian crossing.
• Vertical deflection: Raising a portion of a road surface can create discomfort for drivers travelling at high speeds. Both the height of the deflection and the steepness affect the severity of vehicle displacement. Vertical deflection measures include:
• Speed bumps, sometimes split or offset in the middle to avoid delaying emergency vehicles
• Speed humps, parabolic devices that are less aggressive than speed bumps.
• Speed cushions, two or three small speed humps sitting in a line across the road that slow cars down but allows wider emergency vehicles to straddle them so as not to slow emergency response time.
• Speed tables, long flat-topped speed humps that slow cars more gradually than humps
• Raised pedestrian crossings, which act as speed tables, often situated at junctions.
• Speed dips, sunken instead of raised 
• Changing the surface material or texture (for example, the selective use of brick, cobblestone, or polymer cement overlay).
• Changes in texture may also include changes in color to highlight to drivers that they are in a pedestrian-centric zone.
• Rumble strips, when placed perpendicular to traffic in the travel lane act as speed bumps as they produce unpleasant sounds and vibration when crossed at higher speeds.
• Horizontal deflection, i.e. make the vehicle swerve slightly. These include:
• Chicanes, which create a horizontal deflection that causes vehicles to slow as they would for a curve.
• Pedestrian refuges again can provide horizontal deflection, as can kerb extensions and chokers.
• Block or restrict access. Such traffic calming means include:
• Median diverters to prevent left turns or through movements into a residential area.
• Converting an intersection into a cul-de-sac or dead end.
• Boom barrier, restricting through traffic to authorised vehicles only.
• Closing of streets to create pedestrian zones.
• Enforcement and education measures
• Enforcement and education measures for traffic calming include:
• Reducing speed limits near institutions such as schools and hospitals (see below)
• Vehicle activated sign, signs which react with a message if they detect a vehicle exceeding a pre-determined speed.
• Embedded pavement flashing-light systems which react to pedestrian presence at crossings to signal drivers and increase awareness.
• Watchman, traffic calming system
• Speed reduction has traditionally been attempted by the introduction of statutory speed limits. Traffic speeds of 30 km/h and lower are said to be more desirable on urban roads with mixed traffic. 
• Zones where speeds are set at 30 km/h are gaining popularity as they are found to be effective at reducing crashes and increasing community cohesion.
• Speed limits which are set below the speed that most motorists perceive to be reasonable for the given road require additional measures to improve compliance. 
• Attempts to improve speed limit observance are usually by either education, enforcement or road engineering. 
• "Education" refers to targeted road user training.
• Speed limit enforcement techniques include: 
• direct police action
• automated systems such as speed cameras or vehicle activated signs or traffic lights triggered by traffic exceeding a preset speed threshold. 
• Cyclists argue for placing direct restrictions on motor-vehicle speed and acceleration performance.
• Reports on promoting walking and cycling specify use of comprehensive camera-based speed control using mainly movable equipment at unexpected spots as one of the top measures .
• Advanced countries have an estimated 1,500 speed/red-light camera installations and set a target for 30 km/h limits on 70% of urban roads.

Traffic management

 Traffic management

Traffic management is the organisation, arrangement, guidance and control of both stationary and moving traffic, including pedestrians, bicyclists and all types of vehicles. Its aim is to provide for the safe, orderly and efficient movement of persons and goods, and to protect and, where possible, enhance the quality of the local environment on and adjacent to traffic facilities. For effective traffic management, it is essential that the practitioner works from factual information. Road inventory and statistical methods, and the more common types of traffic studies, including traffic volume and composition, origin and destination, speed, travel time and delay, accidents and parking are essential.  "Before and after" studies, and estimation of future traffic are also considered. In order to apply traffic management techniques logically, it is necessary to develop a classification or hierarchy of all roads to ensure that the primary purpose of each of them is defined, agreed and understood. The various aspects of traffic management include signing and delineation, pedestrian facilities, bicycle facilities, intersections, traffic signals, road capacity, parking, roadside safety and roadway lighting.

Solutions to design of traffic signals

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS ON DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

1. Given:

        Cycle time at an intersection = 60 s   
        Green time for a phase  =  27 s
        Yellow time  =  4 s
        Saturation headway = 2.4 s/vehicle
        Start-up time lost  =  2 s/phase
        Clearance lost time  =  1 s/phase
        Calculate the capacity of movement per lane

        Solution:

Total time lost = tL = 2 + 1 = 3 seconds

Effective green time = gi= 27 + 4 - 3 = 28 seconds

 As per the equation for saturation flow rate = Si = 3600 / h = 3600/2.4 

                                                                        = 1500 vehicles / hour

Capacity of the given phase is found by the equation Ci = 1500 * (28/60)

                                                                                        =    700 vehicles/hour/lane

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 2.  In a right angled intersection of two roads, one road has four lanes with a total width of 12 m. The other road has two lanes with a total width of 6.6 m. The traffic volume of two approaching roads is 900 and 743 PCU per hour. on the two approaches of road-1 and 278 and 189 PCU/hour on the two approaches of road-1 and 278 and 180 PCU.hour on the two approaches of road-2. Design the signal timing as per IRC guidelines

Solution

Width of road-1 = 12.0m, 4 lanes = 2 lanes in each direction

Width of road-2 = 6.6m, 2 lanes = 1 lane in each direction

Approach volume on road-1 = 90 & 743 PCU/hr

Approach volume on road-2 = 278 & 180 PCU/hr

Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2m/s

Design traffic on road-1 = higher of the two approach volume per lane

                                        =    900/2 = 450PCU/hr

Design traffic on road-2 = 278 PCU/hr

STEP-1

Pedestrian crossing time

Pedestrian green time for road-1 = (12/1.2) + 7.0 = 17 seconds

Pedestrian green time for road-2 = (6.6/1.2) + 7.0 = 12.5 seconds

STEP-2

Minimum green time for traffic

Minimum green time for vehicles on road-1 = G(i) = 17 seconds

Minimum green time for vehicle on road-1 = G1 = 17 * (450/278) = 27.5 seconds

STEP 3

Revised green time for traffic signals

Adding 2.0 seconds each towards clearance amber and inter-green period for each phase, total cycle time required = (2 + 17 + 2) +(2 + 27.5 + 2) = 52.5 seconds

Approximating this to the next multiple of 5, cycle time = 55 seconds

Signal time is set conveniently in multiples of 5

The extra time of (55 - 52.5) may be apportioned to green times of road-1 and road-2 as 1.5 and 1 seconds respectively. Adopting G1 = 27.5 + 1.5 = 29.0 seconds and G2 = 17.0 + 1.0 = 18 seconds

STEP 4

Checking for clearing the vehicles during the green phase

Vehicle arrival per lane per cycle on road-1 = (450/55) = 8.2 PCU/cycle

Minimum green time required per cycle to vehicles on road-1 =

                     = 6 + (8.2 - 1.0) * 2 = 20.4 seconds (This is less than 29 seconds, hence accepted)

Vehicle arrival per lane per cycle on road-2 = (278/55) = 5.1 PCU/cycle

Minimum green time required per cycle to vehicles on road-2 =

                     = 6 + (5.1 - 1.0) * 2 = 14.2 seconds (This is less than 18 seconds, hence acceptable)

Since the green time provided by the road by pedestrian crossing criteria is higher than the values calculated, the design values are correct

STEP 5

Check for optimum signal cycle by webster's equation 

Lost time per cycle = (amber time + inter-green period + time lost for initial delay of first vehicle) for two phases. = (2 + 2 + 4) *2 = 16 seconds

Saturation flow for road-1 of width 6 m = 525 * 6 = 3150 PCU/hour

Saturation flow for road-2 of width 3.3 m = 180 PCU 3.0 wide road + (40 * 3/5)

                                                                    = 1874 PCU/hour

y1 = 900 / 3150 = 0.286 & y2 = 278/1874 = 0.148

Optimum cycle time  C0 = (1.5L + 5)/(1 - y) = 51.2 seconds

Hence, cycle time of 55 seconds as designed earlier is acceptable. The details of signal timing are tabulated as follows.

                                                                                                                                      

Road        Green phase        Amber time        Red phase        Cycle time

Road-1            29 s                            2 s                      (22 + 2)                55

Road-2            18 s                            2 s                       (33 + 2)                55

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3.    Average speed on a roadway = 80 kmph

       Average spacing between vehicles (under stopped conditions) = 6.9m

        Maximum flow of vehicles (C) = 100 * Average Velocity / Stopping distance

                                                           =    100 * (80/6.9)

                                                            =    1159.42 vehicles/hour

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4.    15-minute traffic counts n1= 178 and n2= 142

        A1= 3 sec, A2= 2 sec, Ht= 2.5 sec

        Trial (i) Assume a trial cycle C1= 50 sec

        Number of cycles in 15 min = 15 * 60/50 = 18 sec

        Green time for Road-1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec per                 vehicle,G1= 178×2.518= 24.7 sec

        Similarly for Road-2, G2= 142×2.518= 19.7 sec

        Amber times A1 and A2 are 3 and 2 sec (given) 

        Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)= 24.7 + 19.7 + 3.0 + 2.0 

                                            = 49.4 sec

As this is lower than the assumed trial cycle of 50 sec, another lower cycle length may be tried.

Trial (ii)

Assume a trial cycle C2= 40 sec

Number of cycles in 15 min = 15 * 60/40 = 22.5sec 

Green time for Road-1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec per vehicle, G1= 178×2.522.5= 19.8 sec 

Similarly for Road-2, G2= 142×2.522.5= 15.8 sec 

Amber times A1and A2are 3 and 2 sec (given) 

Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)= 19.8 + 15.8 + 3.0 + 2.0=  40.6 sec

As this is lower than the assumed trial cycle of 50 sec, another higher cycle length may be tried. 

Trial (iii)Assume a trial cycle C3= 45 sec 

Number of cycles in 15 min = 15*60 / 45= 20sec

Green time for Road-1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec per vehicle,G1= 178×2.5/20= 22.25 sec

Similarly for Road-2, G2= 142×2.5/20= 17.75 sec

Amber times A1and A2are 3 and 2 sec (given)

Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)

                                    = 22.25+17.75+3.0+2.0= 45.0 sec

Therefore, the trial cycle of 45 sec may be adopted with the following signal phases: 

G1= 22.25, say adopt G1= 22 sec 

G2= 17.75, say adopt G2= 18 sec

 Adopt A1= 3 sec, A2= 2 sec

Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)= 22.0 + 18.0 + 3.0 + 2.0= 45.0 sec 

 Since this is greater than the assumed cycle of 40 seconds, the value of 45 seconds of cycle time is adopted.

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 5.    Flow of traffic on road A = 400 PCU/hour

        Flow of traffic on road B = 250 PCU/hour

        Saturation flow value on road A =1250 PCU/hour

        Saturation flow value on road B =1000 PCU/hour

         Pedestrian crossing time = 12 seconds

Using WEBSTERs method to design traffic signal

Normal flow on roads A & B in PCU/hr

Saturation flow

All – red time, R=12 sec

Number of phase, n = 2 

Total lost time in sec 

Optimum cycle time say (~ 67.5 sec)

Providing an all-red time, R for pedestrian crossing = 12 sec

Providing Amber times of 2.0 sec each for clearance

Total cycle time = 29 + 22.5 + 12 + 2 + 2 = 67.5 sec.

Width of road – 1 = 12.0 m or total 4 lanes, with 2 lanes in each direction; Width of road - 2 = 6.6 m or total 2 lanes, with one lane in each direction. Approach volumes on road – 1 = 900 & 743 PCU/hr On road - 2 = 278 & 180 PCU/hr Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2 m/sec. Design traffic on road - 1= higher of the two approach volume per lane = 900/2 = 450 PCU/hr Design traffic on road – 2 = 278 PCU/hr Step – 1. Pedestrian crossing time Pedestrian green time for road – 1 = sec Pedestrian green time for road – 2 = sec Step – 2, Minimum green time for traffic Minimum green time for vehicles on Road – 1, G (1) = 17 sec Minimum green time for Road – 1, sec = 

revised green time for traffic signals Adding 2.0 sec each towards clearance amber and 2.0 sec inter-green period for each phase, total cycle time required = (2 + 17 + 2) + (2 + 27.5 + 2) = 52.5 sec. Signal cycle time may be conveniently set in multiples of five sec and so the cycle time = 55 sec. The extra time of 55.0 – 52.5 = 2.5 sec per cycle may be apportioned to the green times of Road – 1 and Road – 2, as 1.5 and 1.0 sec respectively. Therefore adopt sec and sec Step – 4, check for clearing the vehicles arrived during the green phase Vehicle arrivals per lane per cycle on Road – 1 = 450/55=8.2 PCU/cycle Minimum green time required per cycle to clear vehicles on Road – 1 = 6 + (8.2 – 1.0)2 = 20.4 sec (less than 29.0 sec and therefore accepted) Vehicle arrivals per lane per cycle on Road – 2 = 278/55 = 5.1 PCU/cycle Minimum green time for clearing vehicles on Road – 2 = 6 + (5.1 - 1.0) 2 = 14.2 sec(less than 18.0 sec) As the green time already provided for the two roads by pedestrian crossing criteria in Step (2) above are higher than these values (29.0 and 18.0 sec), the above design values are alright.

check for optimum signal cycle by Webster’s equation Lost time per cycle = (amber time + inter – green time + time lost for initial delay of first vehicle) for two phases = (2 + 2 + 4) x 2 = 16 sec. Saturation flow for Road – 1 of width 6 m = 525 x 6 = 3150 PCU/hr Saturation flow for Road – 2 of width 3.3 m =1850 PCU for 3.0 m wide road + ( 40 * 3/5) = 1874 PCU/hr Y = 0.286 + 0.148 = 0.434 Optimum signal cycle time, sec Therefore the cycle time of 55 sec designed earlier is acceptable. The details of the signal timings are given below. These may also be shown in the form of phase diagram as in Fig. 5.30. Road Green phase, G sec Amber time, sec Red phase, R sec Cycle time, C sec Road 1 29 2 (22 + 2) 55 Road 2 18 2 (33 + 2) 55 

APPROXIMATE METHOD BASED ON PEDESTRIAN CROSSING REQUIREMENT 

The following design procedure is suggested for the approximate design of a two phase traffic signal unit at cross roads, along with pedestrian signals: 

Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m per second and the roadway width of each approach road, the minimum time for the pedestrian to cross each road is also calculated

Total pedestrian crossing time is taken as minimum pedestrian crossing time plus initial interval for pedestrians to start crossing, which should not be less than 7 sec and during this period when the pedestrian will be crossing the road, the traffic signal shall indicate red or ‘stop’.

The red signal time is also equal to the minimum green time plus amber time for the traffic of the cross road.

The actual green time needed for the road with higher traffic is then increased in proportion to the ratio of approach volumes of the two roads in vehicles per hour per lane. 

Based on approach speeds of the vehicles, the suitable clearance interval between green and red period i.e., clearance amber periods are selected.

The amber periods may be taken as 2, 3 or 4 seconds for low, medium and fast approach speeds

The cycle length so obtained is adjusted for the next higher 5 – sec interval; the extra time is then distributed to green timings in proportion to the traffic volumes The timings so obtained are installed in the controller and the operations are then observed at the site during peak traffic hours; modification in signal timings are carried out if needed

The design of a simple two-phase signal is given below.

1.   Example - 4 An isolated traffic signal with pedestrian indication is to be installed on a right angled intersection with road A, 18 m wide and road B, 12 m wide. During the peak our, traffic volume per hour per lane of road A and road B are 275 and 225 respectively. The approach speeds are 55 and 40 kmph, on roads A and road B respectively. Assume pedestrian crossing speed as 1.2 m per sec. Design the timings two-phase traffic and pedestrian by the approximate method. Solution Given: Widths of road A = 18 m and of road B = 12 m Traffic volumes on road A = 275 and on road B = 225 vehicles/lane/hour Approach speeds on road A = 55 and on road B = 40 kmph Pedestrian crossing speed = 1.2 m/sec Design of two-phase traffic control signals Pedestrian crossing/clearance time for Road A = 18/1.2 =15 sec Pedestrian crossing/clearance time for Road B = 12/1.2 = 10 sec Adding 7 sec initial walk period, minimum red time for traffic of road A, is (15 + 7) = 22 sec and that for road B is (10 + 7) = 17 sec. Minimum green time, for traffic of road B, based on pedestrian crossing requirement = 22-3 = 19 sec. Minimum green time, for traffic of road A, based on pedestrian crossing requirement = 17- 4= 13 sec. 
2. The minimum green time calculated for road A is with respect to pedestrian crossing time required for the narrower road B.  As road A has higher traffic volume per lane than road B, the green time of road A has to be higher than that of road B;  the increase may be proportion to the approach volume of road A with respect to that of road B. Let and be the green times and be the approach volume per lane Using the relation, Green time for traffic is taken as the minimum value = 19 sec as obtained from pedestrian crossing criterion for the wider road A. Green time for traffic of road A may be increased in proportion to higher traffic volume Using relation sec Based on the approach speed of 55 kmph for road A, amber period, sec For road B with 40 kmph, amber period, sec Total cycle length Therefore adopt signal cycle length of 50 sec. The additional period of 50 – 49.2 = 0.8 sec is distributed to green timings in proportion to the approach traffic volume. Therefore the revised signal phase are: sec, adopt 23.5 sec sec, adopt 19.5 sec Therefore cycle time, C = 23.5 + 19.5 + 4 + 3 = 50 sec
3. Design of pedestrian signals: Do not Walk (DW) period of pedestrian signal at road A (is red period of traffic signal at B). Pedestrian clearance intervals (CI) are of 15 and 10 sec respectively, for roads A and B for crossing. The walk time (W) is calculated from total cycle length.